Explainers

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a systematic process used to evaluate the potential environmental consequences of a proposed project before it is approved. In India, the EIA notification of 2006 (amended several times since) makes it mandatory for certain categories of projects — including mining, thermal power plants, dams, highways, and industrial estates — to undergo this assessment before construction can begin.

The assessment examines impacts on air quality, water resources, soil, biodiversity, noise levels, and social conditions. It also requires project proponents to propose mitigation measures — steps they will take to minimize or offset negative impacts. The EIA report must be prepared by accredited consultants and submitted to the relevant regulatory authority (MoEFCC for central-level projects, state-level Environment Impact Assessment Authorities for smaller projects).

A critical component of the EIA process is public participation. Schedule 1 projects — those with potentially significant environmental impacts — must hold public hearings in the affected area. Citizens living near the proposed project site have the right to attend these hearings, review the EIA document, and raise objections or concerns. The project can only receive environmental clearance after the public hearing process is completed and their concerns are addressed in writing.

Citizens can participate by: (1) locating the EIA report for a proposed project on the MoEFCC website or state PCB website, (2) attending the scheduled public hearing (notices are published in local newspapers and on government websites), (3) submitting written objections or suggestions in person or by post within 30 days of the hearing notice, and (4) filing an appeal with the National Green Tribunal if they believe the clearance was granted improperly.

Why this matters for India: As one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, India faces constant tension between development and environmental protection. The EIA process is often the only formal mechanism through which communities can influence industrial projects that will affect their air, water, and land. Recent amendments that allow post-facto clearance (approving projects that were built without any assessment) have raised alarm among environmental law experts, who argue this undermines the entire preventive purpose of the EIA framework.

The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, commonly called the Forest Rights Act (FRA), was passed by the Indian Parliament in 2006. It was a landmark piece of legislation that sought to undo the historical injustice caused by colonial forest laws, which had criminalized the livelihoods and habitation of millions of tribal and forest-dwelling communities across India.

The Act grants three main types of rights: (1) Individual rights to cultivated land within forests, up to 4 hectares per family, as long as the land was under cultivation before December 2005; (2) Community rights over forest resources, including minor forest produce (tendu leaves, mahua, honey, medicinal plants), grazing grounds, and traditional water bodies; and (3) Community forest rights (CFRs) that allow communities to manage and protect their forests collectively under their own traditional governance structures.

The claims process works through gram sabhas (village assemblies), which are the primary authority for identifying claimants and verifying their eligibility. Claims are submitted to the gram sabha, verified by a Forest Rights Committee (appointed by the gram sabha), and then forwarded to the Sub-Divisional Level Committee (SDLC) and District Level Committee (DLC) for final approval. The entire process is designed to be community-driven, with the gram sabha serving as the foundation of the decision-making structure.

Despite its progressive intent, FRA implementation faces significant challenges. The forest department, historically accustomed to controlling forest areas through the Indian Forest Act 1927, has often resisted the transfer of rights to communities. Many claims have been rejected on technical grounds, and as of 2024, millions of claims remain pending across states like Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra. Of approximately 4.5 million claims filed since the Act came into effect, only about 2 million individual rights and 80,000 community rights have been recognized.

The Act also includes important conservation provisions: it empowers gram sabhas to protect wildlife, forests, and catchment areas; mandates their consent before any relocation from protected areas; and requires that no forest right can be acquired without the free and informed consent of the affected community. Environmental groups argue that strengthening FRA implementation is essential not only for social justice but also for effective forest conservation, as community-managed forests often show better ecological outcomes than state-managed ones.

The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 — commonly known as PESA — extended the panchayati raj system to Scheduled Areas (tribal-majority regions) across 10 Indian states: Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha, Rajasthan, and Telangana. Unlike the standard Panchayati Raj Act, PESA grants significantly greater powers to gram sabhas in tribal areas.

Under PESA, the gram sabha (the assembly of all adult members of a village) is the foundation of governance. It has the authority to: (1) approve all development plans and social sector programs; (2) manage and regulate the use of minor forest produce, water bodies, and common lands; (3) prevent alienation of tribal land; (4) regulate money lending to tribal communities; and (5) have the power to be consulted before any mining lease, land acquisition, or industrial project is approved in the area.

The intersection between PESA and the Forest Rights Act (FRA) is particularly important. While FRA grants communities rights over forests, PESA gives gram sabhas the governance authority to manage those resources. Together, they create a powerful legal framework for community-led natural resource governance. However, the practical overlap between forest department authority (under the Indian Forest Act) and gram sabha authority (under PESA and FRA) remains a source of conflict on the ground.

Implementation of PESA has been weak and uneven. Only 5 of the 10 PESA states have framed their own PESA rules, as required by the Act. Even where rules exist, violations are common — mining leases are granted without gram sabha consent, common lands are acquired for industrial projects without consultation, and tribal communities continue to face displacement without the safeguards the Act was designed to provide. The Bhuria Committee (1995) that originally recommended PESA envisioned it as a tool for tribal self-governance, but two and a half decades later, that vision remains largely unrealized.

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that makes Earth habitable. Here is how it works: solar radiation (sunlight) reaches the Earth's surface, warming it. The surface then radiates heat back upward as infrared radiation. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — primarily carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and water vapour — absorb some of this outgoing infrared radiation and re-radiate it in all directions, including back down toward the surface. This trapped heat keeps the planet about 33°C warmer than it would be without an atmosphere.

The problem is that human activities — burning fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial processes — have dramatically increased the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere. Before the Industrial Revolution, CO₂ levels were around 280 parts per million (ppm). As of 2025, they exceed 420 ppm — a 50% increase. This extra CO₂ traps more heat, causing the planet to warm. Think of it like adding an extra blanket on a bed: the more CO₂, the thicker the blanket, and the warmer it gets underneath.

The number 350 ppm is significant because climate scientists, particularly Dr. James Hansen and his team at NASA, identified it as the upper safe limit for CO₂ concentration — above which we risk triggering irreversible climate tipping points. These include the collapse of the Greenland and West Antarctic ice sheets, dieback of the Amazon rainforest, and thawing of Arctic permafrost (which would release even more greenhouse gases). We are currently well above 350 ppm, which is why climate scientists describe the situation as urgent.

India's emissions trajectory is a critical part of the global picture. India is currently the third-largest emitter of CO₂ overall (after China and the United States), contributing about 7% of global emissions. However, India's per capita emissions are among the lowest of any major economy — about 2 tonnes of CO₂ per person per year, compared to 15 tonnes for the US and 8 tonnes for China. India has committed to reaching net-zero emissions by 2070, while also arguing for climate justice: that developed countries, which are responsible for the majority of historical emissions, should bear a greater share of the mitigation burden.

Biodiversity — short for biological diversity — refers to the variety of life on Earth at all levels: genes, species, populations, ecosystems, and the ecological processes that connect them. It is the living fabric of our planet, and it provides essential services that humans depend on: clean air and water, pollination of crops, decomposition of waste, climate regulation, disease control, and the raw materials for food, medicine, and shelter.

Scientists describe the current period as the sixth mass extinction — the sixth time in Earth's 4.5-billion-year history that species are disappearing at a rate far exceeding the natural background extinction rate. Unlike previous mass extinctions caused by asteroid impacts or volcanic eruptions, this one is caused entirely by one species: Homo sapiens. The five main drivers, in order of impact, are: (1) habitat destruction and fragmentation (conversion of forests, wetlands, and grasslands for agriculture, urbanisation, and infrastructure); (2) overexploitation of species (overfishing, hunting, poaching); (3) climate change; (4) pollution (chemical, plastic, light, and noise pollution); and (5) invasive alien species that outcompete or prey on native species.

India presents a particularly stark case. The country hosts 12% of the world's species on just 2.4% of the world's land area, making it one of the 17 megadiverse countries on the planet. It contains four biodiversity hotspots: the Western Ghats, the Himalayas, Indo-Burma (Northeast India), and Sundaland (Nicobar Islands). Yet rapid economic growth, industrialisation, and population pressure are placing immense strain on this natural heritage. According to the IUCN Red List, about one-fifth of India's assessed species are under threat of extinction.

The consequences of biodiversity loss are not abstract. When pollinator species decline, crop yields suffer. When mangrove forests are destroyed, coastal communities lose their first line of defence against cyclones and storm surges. When wetlands are drained, flood control and water purification capacities disappear. When forests are cleared, carbon stores are released into the atmosphere, accelerating climate change. Biodiversity loss and climate change are not separate crises — they are deeply interconnected, and addressing either requires addressing both.

The Right to Information Act (RTI), 2005 is one of the most powerful tools available to Indian citizens for accessing environmental data held by public authorities. Under the Act, any citizen can request information from any government department, and the department must respond within 30 days (48 hours for matters involving life and liberty). The cost of filing an RTI application is just Rs 10 for most central and state departments.

For environmental data, the first step is identifying the right authority. Here is a guide: (1) For national-level policies, clearances, and data — the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), and Forest Survey of India (FSI). (2) For state-level issues — the State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) and State Forest Department. (3) For project-specific clearances — the SEIAA (State Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority) or DEIAA (District Level Environment Impact Assessment Authority). (4) For biodiversity-related data — the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) or State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs).

Drafting the application: Be specific about the information you need. Vague requests are more likely to be rejected. For example, instead of "Give me information about forest clearance in my area," ask: "Provide copies of all forest clearance proposals and approvals under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 for projects in [district/village] between January 2020 and December 2024, including the area diverted, compensatory afforestation details, and conditions imposed." Include your name, address, and the mode of payment (Rs 10 via court fee stamp, IPO, or online payment if filing through the RTI portal).

You can file online through the RTI Online portal (rtionline.gov.in) for central government departments, or through state-specific portals. Alternatively, you can send a physical application by post to the Central Public Information Officer (CPIO) of the concerned department. If the CPIO fails to respond within 30 days, or if the information provided is incomplete or unsatisfactory, you can file a First Appeal under Section 19(1) of the RTI Act to the First Appellate Authority within the same department. If the appeal is also unsuccessful, you can file a Second Appeal to the Central Information Commission (CIC) at the national level.

Sample RTI text for forest clearance data: “Under the RTI Act 2005, I request the following information regarding forest diversion proposals under the Forest Conservation Act, 1980 in [state/district]: 1. Total number of proposals received between 2020-2024. 2. Number approved, rejected, and pending. 3. Total forest area diverted (in hectares). 4. Compensatory afforestation funds collected and utilized. 5. Compliance status of conditions imposed on approvals. Copies of the Stage-I and Stage-II clearance letters for the five most recent approved proposals.” This kind of specific, data-oriented request is much more likely to yield useful information than a general inquiry.